sbobet เว็บไซต์แทงบอลออนไลน์ ที่ดีที่สุดในประเทศไทย

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Chicken coops are the most expensive initial investment in backyard chicken keeping. There are lots of creative ways to reduce the sticker price by building your own. Hen coops can be as original and varied as their owners, from traditional red barn shapes to retro funk to sleek modern chicken tractors. But some materials are not suited for keeping these fine birds, and particle board is one of them.

Particle board (also known as chip board) is made up of wood chips and saw dust held together with a large quantity of glue and then compressed into slabs. It is cheaper and lighter than plywood, which makes it tempting to use in a chicken coop. However, it has two big drawbacks.

One major problem is that particle board soaks up dampness unless it is coated with some serious paint or sealer. Anyone who has put a glass on a cheap table and discovered an instant ring on the "wood finish" wallpaper-like covering of particle board knows what I mean. Chicken poop is very wet. Constant exposure to droppings will make particle board warp, discolor and potentially disintegrate.

Which brings up problem number two. Chickens have a high respiratory rate, and are very close to the ground. Air quality is very important to keeping them healthy. Since particle board is made up partially of sawdust and glue, when it comes apart those can get kicked into the air and end up in the chicken's lungs. If you use good bedding, this is less likely to happen, but why take the chance? Especially when you can easily avoid the potential in the first place?

So what can you use? A popular choice is placing your coop on bare earth. This can get mucky, and is slightly less safe from ground predators than other options. A next step up, is to raise your chicken coop off the ground using wood. "Repurposed" wood can include table tops, doors, or scraps from any local lumberyard.

You can also use plywood. Plywood is similar to particle wood in that it is layers of wood. However the wood is in sheets and the sheets are glued at right angles to each other, it is less likely to warp and the top surface is straight wood. Another option is to use any sort of board and cover it with linoleum. This will make the surface easier to clean.

The most expensive option is concrete. Concrete has the advantage of being long lasting and easy to clean. It also is harder for predators to penetrate – there's no burrowing through well laid cement.

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Source by Simon J. Lind

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There are various factors that determine which kind of roof to use for your house.

CLIMATE

In hot desert-like climates where rainfall is low, flat roofs are very common. Areas such as North-Africa have a lot of these roofs.

A flat roof is not exactly 'flat'. It usually slopes at an angle of 5 to 10 degrees. This angle can not be noticed easily and helps to drain water during cleaning or after rainy weather.

In traditional African societies, communities living in Arid areas of Kenya such as Maasai, Samburu had their shelters made of flat roofs. This is because rain is not common in these areas.

In rainy climates, the roof becomes steep. In snowy regions such as Northern Europe, the roof is very steep [over 45 degrees] so as to drain away snow. In traditional African societies which live in rainy regions such as Kisii, Mount Kenya and Coast, the thatch roof is very steep [over 60 degrees] so as to increase the surface runoff of rain water.

COST

Roofing materials vary depending on the budget.

In Kenya, thatch roof is the cheapest at KES 180 per square meter.

It is followed by Iron sheets. The thinnest grade in the market at the moment is Gauge 32 which costs about KES 210 per square meter. Gauge 30 costs about KES 240 per square meter and Gauge 28 pre-painted costs approximately kes 500 per square meter.

Concrete roofing tiles cost around KES 400 per square meter.

Clay roofing tiles cost around KES 630 per square meter at Mombasa. These have the advantage of being light-weight and since they are made of natural clay with no added paint, their rain-water runoff can be consumed without any health issues as compared to the others which have paint. Paint contains Lead which is harmful to the human body.

Stone coated steel roofing tiles such as Harvey, Decra are in the range of the most expensive and cost approximately KES 1500 per square meter. These are usually gauge 26 in thickness and hence give a lifetime guarantee. Their light weight also gives savings to the timber supporting trusses which will be less than when supporting heavier concrete tiles.

THEME DESIGN AND SHAPE OF THE ROOF

Curved and cylindrical roofs require special types of materials such as copper and bituminous felts. These felts can take the shape of the roof easily.

Copper felt is expensive. This is usually copper in colour when new and turns greenish as it ages.

Hipped roofs are best laid using tiles since with tiles, there will be less cutting and hence less wastage. Some steel roofing suppliers in Kenya can supply curved roofs. Gable roofs can be done using any type of roofing products.

Some buildings such as Highlands restaurant at Afya Centre, Nairobi have glass roofs. These give nice views but are expensive to put up. A square meter of 10mm structural glass costs approximately kes 2,800.

The steepness of the roof can also be used to control cost. The more steep the roof, the more the surface area and hence the more the cost. Some roofing tiles such as Mangalore design require steep roofs to make sure that the rain water surface runoff is fast and hence no leakages.

Recreational facilities such as tourist lodges which require rustic natural finishes will opt for the thatch roofs which can be patterned to various designs.

Frank Gichuhi
Architect.

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Source by Frank Gichuhi

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Silicone can be supplied as an oil, grease, sealant, or rubber.

The rubber is typically supplied in one of three forms – a room temperature vulcanisation (RTV) kit, as a liquid, or as high consistency rubber (HCR). In its uncured (un-vulcanised) form, the consistency of HCR silicone ranges from soft putty to cheddar cheese! This is in sharp contrast to most other rubbers, which have a much higher viscosity.

Silicone is resistant to very high and very low temperatures, and so is ideally suited to applications that must perform in the harshest of conditions. This includes engine parts, furnace seals, and components used in outer space!

Phenyl-based compounds have been developed for products in operation below the -55 ° C which general purpose silicone can withstand. These can be moulded, extruded, or calendered, and offer excellent resistance to temperatures down to -100 ° C.

High temperature resistant silicone compounds can withstand temperatures of up to 300 ° C for periods of up to 3 weeks. Temperature peaks above 300 ° C can be tolerated for very short periods of time but they are not recommended for continuous operation at these temperatures. The effect of high temperatures tends to lead to a hardening and increasing brittleness of the silicone so it loses its elastomeric properties.
Silicone will retain its properties regardless of the weather conditions to which it is exposed.

Wet, dry, cold, hot, or humid, parts made from silicone rubber will also not be affected by ozone or UV.

This has led to widespread use in the construction industry (eg coatings, fire protection, glazing seals), and automotive industry (external gaskets, external trim).

In addition to being resistant to rainwater, parts made from silicone are not adversely affected by immersion in seawater. This has enabled diving gear, seals and gaskets on submarines and ships, and components on oil-rigs to have a longer operational life.

Because silicone can be formulated to be electrically insulative or conductive, it is suitable for a wide range of electrical applications, including cable covers, insulating gaskets, conductive gaskets, and keyboard components.

Outstanding physical and mechanical properties are enhanced by exceptional resistance to ageing factors such as oxygen, ozone, humidity and moulds. These silicone compounds can be supplied with a high ash cohesion level if required and low burning toxicity.

Specialist insulating materials resist combustion arc tracking and environmental degradation. As such, they are ideally suited for use with high voltage and power transmission equipment such as insulators, surge arresters, and casing pipe.

Silicone is suitable for use in clean environments as the polymer does not support microbiological growth. This makes it ideal for medical devices.

Joint replacements, tubing, catheters, and all manner of medical devices are manufactured using medically approved silicone. Most processing methods can be used for these devices, provided they are carried out in a suitably clean environment.

As a low taint, non-toxic material, silicone can be used where contact with food is required. Coupled with its high temperature resistance, this makes it an ideal polymer for food moulds, baking machinery components, and vending machine tube. Over the last few years there has also been an increase in the number of household utensils manufactured from silicone rubber. Specific grades of silicone rubber are used widely in the production of baby bottle teats due to their cleanliness aesthetic appearance and low extractable content.

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Source by Steven J Wheeler

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Some of our most popular questions are "Is this material UV stable?", Or "How long will this last in direct sunlight?", Or some similar themed question. These are great questions. Just look at the 'cheap' backyard furniture you bought last season, yep, it is faded and cracking or broken. Why is that?

The quick answer is the material had either no UV (Ultra Violet Light) stabilizer or very little – or it was simply the wrong plastic for the part. Most plastic materials are not UV stable to start with, other than Acrylic which is invisible to UV. All other materials need a little something (an additive) to give it the protection it may need from the sun. Many plastic materials, if given the proper UV resistant additives, can be used in direct sunlight for 10 – 15 years, or more, providing excellent performance in harsh environments.

The first factor in picking such a material is the intended use. Not all materials are good choices for all applications. While some materials will perform exceptionally well, others plastic materials under the same conditions will fail. Many plastic materials are not well suited to: high temperatures, chemical exposure, UV light, high impact, or electrical applications. Please contact us for details on a material that may meet your needs.

HDPE sheet is one of the best materials for long term outdoor use, if given the proper additives (without UV inhibitors it will fade and crack quickly). Next time you drive by a children's playground in your local city, look at the brightly colored panels used to make the play equipment. This is a HDPE sheet with heavy UV additives, and this makes an excellent application. Available in a rainbow of colors and able to be fabricated easily, this material is excellent for many outdoor applications.

If your application is more mechanical, other materials that might be used would be: Polycarbonate, UHMW, ABS (especially with Korad – Acrylic cover), Acetal, Noryl and many more.

Our standard Makrolon Polycarbonate is a UV stable material in sheet, and is frequently used in replacement glazing applications. The remaining materials on the list are available in Black (a carbon black pigment) which extends outdoor usage. While still not recommended for direct sunlight, they can be used with a good possibility of success – depending on design. Plastics can become brittle or lose properties over time if material does not have UV stabilization, with the proper material and the proper additives, you can get years of trouble free service.

Additionally, many materials will work well if they are painted to cover the plastic surface. Many spray paints, especially Acrylic paints, last many years in the sun. Please check with us, as some material do not accept paints or coatings.

Take some time to review your requirements, and the properties of the plastic you intend to use. The right material will provide the best performance. Contact any of our Plasticologists for assistance, call 866-832-9315 or email us. Can always do You research on plastic materials at Industrial Plastic Supply .

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Source by Hayden Hess

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Normally, roll off dumpsters are rented out based on the amount of trash they can hold in terms of internal cubic yards, but heavier materials will make the dumpster reach its limits long before it becomes completely filled. The actual amount of weight that can be put into any given container will depend on the size of the bin in question, so below is an outline of the standard roll off container rental sizes, along with their maximum weight allowances.

10 Yard Containers – 1.5 Tons – 3000 lbs

These small dumpster are most commonly used for getting rid of general household items, like books, boxes, furniture, papers and small amounts of piping. They are good for thoroughly clearing out one small room

20 Yard Dumpsters – 3 Tons – 6000 lbs

These roll off dumpsters are probably the most popular size used amongst home owners. They are great for getting rid of excess trash after dealing with some general maintenance on a house, especially when redecorating or cleaning out room in the attic.

30 Yard Containers – 4 tons -8000 lbs

30 yard roll off containers are normally used on the lower end of the industrial scale. They can handle a lot of weight, which makes them great for dealing with waste from landscaping and heavy duty renovation projects.

40 Yard Dumpsters – 5 tons – 10000 lbs

40 yard roll off dumpsters tend to only really get used on full scale construction sites. They can move an incredible amount of junk, but as they take up a considerable amount of room it is not feasible to use these kind of bins on most commercial or residential sites.

One thing to remember when loading up any dumpster rentals, is that regardless of how much space may remain in the bin, if you are loading it up with heavy material you have to be extremely careful to not go over the specified weight limits. As if you do, it will not only cause trouble when it comes to the rental company trying to take the container away, but it can also lead to you being forced to pay an additional charge as a result.

Most people are not going to be able to tell if they've gone over their roll off dumpsters weight limit just by looking, but a good rule of thumb is that if you are filling the dumpster with heavy material (like dirt or concrete) , do not fill it any further than half way. If you stick to that, you should not have any problems.

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Source by Zach Lavery

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Sink materials

Most pedestal and wall-hung sinks are made from vitreous china, and the same qualities that make this material a good choice for toilets work well for sinks too: a durable, abrasion-resistant, easy-to-clean surface that maintains its luster year after year.Choose vitreous-china sinks-particularly pedestal sinks-with care, especially if you're unfamiliar with the brand, because any ceramic manufacturing process produces a high number of seconds that may have defects ranging from minor blemishes or depressions in the surface to hairline cracking and out-of-plumb or warped mating surfaces. This can mean drop-in self-rimming sinks that do not sit flat (particularly larger ones) and two-piece pedestals that just do not quite go together correctly.

Enameled cast iron has most of vitreous china's good qualities, and it is much less prone to cracking. Cast iron is strong, rigid, and quiet when water is running into it, although it can chip if mishandled during shipping or if a hammer gets dropped on it during installation. Cast-iron sinks are very heavy, which may not make that much of a difference with smaller vanity bowls, but can make handling larger sinks hard on the back.

Enameled steel is similar to enameled cast iron but considerably lighter and less expensive. It is much more likely to chip than enameled cast iron because its porcelain coating is thinner and the steel is more flexible. Water running into it makes more noise, too, and cools down more rapidly because the thin steel walls tend to dissipate heat pretty quickly. Formerly a low-budget alternative to porcelain and cast iron, enameled steel seems to be rapidly losing ground to synthetic materials that are competitively priced and that perform just as well, if not better. I've removed a few of these sinks in remodels, but I have not put any new ones back in lately.

Cultured marble is one of those synthetic materials, and it's been around for a long time. Cultured marble, like cultured onyx and cultured granite, is technically a cast polymer, created by mixing crushed minerals like marble, onyx, or limestone with a polyester resin. This mixture is then poured into a mold and cured at room temperature. Like fiberglass, the surface is usually then gel-coated with the actual sink color and pattern, so some cast-polymer sinks are prone to scratching and damage. One problem often associated with cast-polymer sinks is "crazing," or cracks and blisters in the gel coat. This typically occurs around the drain opening and is caused by the thermal shock of alternating hot and cold water, by abrasion from cleaning, and / or by a gel coat that is too thin or thick. Much of the do-it-yourself and lower-end sink market has been dominated by these sinks, in part because they're relatively inexpensive and look good on the shelf. Some of the newer and more expensive cast polymers have a higher percentage of materials like quartz, which is very hard, and are not gel-coated. These cast polymers are much more heat and impact resistant and are sandable, making damage easier to repair.

Solid-surface materials like Corian and Surell are similar to cultured marble in that they too can be cast into easily cleaned one-piece sink / counter-tops. They have the advantage of having colors and patterns that are an integral part of the material, so repairs can be made simply by sanding away dents and scratches, and the nonporous synthetics are stain resistant (though not stain proof). Individual sink bowls are also available, though they are generally laminated into larger counter-tops of the same material. Expect to pay a lot more for solid-surface sinks than for cultured marble.

Ceramic earthenware bowls offer a colorful and organic alternative to mass-produced sinks. Because they are handmade, these sinks have irregularities that sometimes make getting them to fit correctly a real challenge, particularly those made outside the United States. Often these sinks do not have an overflow-a secondary outlet to the drain to keep a stoppered sink from flooding-which is sometimes required by local building codes. And because they are somewhat fragile, they require careful installation to make everything fit together well-tight enough not to leak but not so tight as to fracture the bowl.

But they add a custom touch to a bathroom, particularly when matched with tile work from the same pottery.

Stainless-steel sinks have long been popular in the kitchen, and their somewhat industrial look sometimes lends itself well to bathrooms, too.They are certainly durable and easy to clean. There is a wide range of quality in stainless-steel sinks, with a corresponding range of prices. The best ones have a higher percentage of chromium and nickel, making them more stain and corrosion resistant, and are typically made of 18-gauge stainless steel, making them stronger and giving them a higher luster. Less expensive sinks feel flimsier because they are made of lighter 22-gauge (or less) steel; they have a duller finish, tend to be noisy, and tend to warp.

Metal sinks are also available in brass, copper, aluminum, and bronze. Sometimes these sinks are mass-produced, but more often than not the more esoteric ones are handmade, and the same reservations that apply to ceramic sinks apply here. Like handmade ceramic sinks, metal sinks can be fussy to install and sometimes require some modification to adapt them to plumbing and fittings. Tempered-glass sinks are also available in a number of distinctive styles, including a sink basin mounted above the counter-top.

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Source by Mirna Khoury

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The cosmology and cosmography of the ancient Vedas is awe inspiring to say the least. The more "modern" of the Vedic texts are known to originate from approximately 3000 BC, thus being the oldest scientific and religious doctrines known to man. The descriptions of our solar system and what modern astronomy has discovered of the visible universe corresponds with the ancient Vedic knowledge, proving that man has had advanced knowledge of astronomy for thousands of years before our modern civilization began. This article describes the Vedic version of planetary systems from the topmost, eternal planets down through the temporary planetary systems within innumerable universes of this material world.

When saying "cosmic manifestation" we speak of two separate worlds, the spiritual and the material. The spiritual planetary systems are eternal, beyond the limits of the material universes, and belong to a "super dimensional" or "anti-material" dimension. These are beyond the limitations of material time and space and therefore beyond our vision, or powers of perception. In these planetary systems there is no occurrence of creation or dissolution, and these planets are unlimited, indestructible, and eternally existing. There are descriptions of these spiritual planets in the vedic literatures, but this article concentrates on those within the material universe.

The material planetary systems are created at some point in time and will be destroyed at another. They are bound by the influences of time and space. Both of these energies (spiritual and material) are of the same divine source called "brahmajyoti", the spiritual light. About 1 / 4th of this brahmajyoti is covered by the "mahat-tattva", the material energy, where are found innumerable material universes. The 3 / 4th portion is the eternal spiritual sky. In the spiritual world are two realms of existence, "Goloka-dhama" and "Hari-dhama". The material world has one realm called "Devi-dhama".

Goloka-dhama is the topmost planet and residence of the Supreme Godhead Sri Sri Radha-Krishna. Below this is Hari-dhama where the spiritual planets of the Vaikunthalokas are situated. Below the Vaikuntha planets is "Mahesh-dhama" (also called Sadasivaloka, or the abode of Lord Siva). This is the realm dividing the spiritual from the material universes. Below Mahesh-dhama is Devi-dhama, the realm of the material universe. It is said that the systems of yoga offer different destinations. Bhakti yoga directs one toward entering Hari-dhama or Goloka-dhama. Jnana yoga directs the aspirant toward entrance to Mahesh dhama, and karma yoga directs one to remain in Devi-dhama, experiencing repeated birth and death in the material worlds.

The Planetary Systems of Devi-Dhama

In the Bhagavad-Gita we find a statement that there are three divisions of material planets in our universe. They are "urdhva-loka" (highest), "madhya-loka" (middle), and "adho-loka" (lower). Above the urdhva-lokas are the coverings of the material universe beyond which lie the eternal realms of existence. Within these three spheres of existence are 14 main planetary systems with different standards of life and duration of existence. The residents of the upper three systems have almost no disease or aging of the body, and they have no sense of fear. As the planetary systems progress downward there is lesser duration of life and standard of living, as well as a greater manifestation of disease and anxiety.

The 14 planetary systems are named as follows, from highest to lowest:

1) Satya-loka

2) Tapa-loka

3) Jana-loka

4) Mahar-loka

5) Svar-loka

6) Bhuvar-loka

7) Bhur-loka

8) Atala-loka

9) Vitala-loka

10) Sutala-loka

11) Talatala-loka

12) Mahatala-loka

13) Rasatala-loka

14) Patala-loka

In one of the Vedic scriptures called the "Hari-vamsa" there is a description as follows: "Above the planetary systems where humans live is the sky. Above the sky is the orbiting sun, which is the entrance point of the heavenly planetary systems . This is the middle of the universe where begins the planets of those elevated by great austerities and penances. The planets above these, up to Satya-loka are the residences of those advanced in spiritual knowledge. All these planets are within the material world and under the control of Devi (Goddess Durga), and therefore called Devi-dhama. "

The term "amara" (deathless) is often used to describe the residents of the heavenly planets because their span of life is inconceivable to us, but although they live for millions of years by our calculation, none within the material worlds can live here eternally . In Bhagavad-Gita there is given a description for the life span of those living on Satyaloka. One day is equal to 4,300,000,000 solar years. On other heavenly planets the day is considered to equal six months of our time, and the night also equal to six months on earth. These souls live in their bodies for 10 million of their years.

Time duration such as day, night, months, and years are different in different planetary systems, and there are also different types of human beings, animals, trees, and vegetation. Some of the planets that are visible to us are considered heavenly planets with different timings. Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon are examples of planets where one day is equal to six months on earth. How can that be, one may ask, when we can see these planets orbiting the Sun?

One point of reference that may be difficult for some to understand is crucial to this realization. All planets have different dimensions surrounding them. The dimension of existence visible to our eyes gives us the impression that the other planets in our solar system are mostly devoid of life. In actuality astronomers have found proof of intelligent life on other planets, regardless of the fact that little is yet public knowledge. The purview discernable by our physical eyes, though, can not enter into the heavenly spheres of these planets where devas, angels, and higher beings exist, nor even that of humans who enjoy an existence far superior to what is obtainable on our planet earth.

Just as on and surrounding earth there are realms of existence inhabited by ethereal beings invisible to our eyes, some highly advanced and others bound by unfortunate circumstances (such as ghosts), all planets have different spheres of existence. We can never gain knowledge of the multi-dimensional reality on earth with our physical eyes, so how could we possibly expect to enter into the higher realities of other planets with them?

There are also different types of oceans on different planets in the material world. "Siddhanta-siromani", an ancient vedic astrological text describes them as being of seven varieties:

1) an ocean of salt water

2) an ocean of milk

3) an ocean of curd

4) an ocean of ghee (clarified butter)

5) an ocean of sugar cane juice

6) an ocean of liquor

7) an ocean of sweet water

Our minds may balk at such a conception of different types of oceans, but why should any of these be more fantastic than the ocean of salt water that we have here on earth?

There are also some eternal planets seemingly situated within this material universe, but they are always inaccessible for human beings. The text "Laghu-Bhagavatamrita" describes these eternal planets as follows: "Above Rudraloka, the planet of Lord Siva, is the planet called Vishnuloka. It is 400,000 miles in circumference, and inaccessible for any mortal living being. Above that Vishnuloka is a golden island called Maha-Vishnuloka in the ocean of salt. Brahma and other demigods sometimes go there to meet Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu lies there with Lakshmi (the goddess of fortune). East of here is the "ocean of milk" where within is the island of Svetadvipa, where Lord Vishnu also resides with Goddess Lakshmi. His transcendental island is 200,000 square miles and covered with desire trees for the pleasure of the Supreme Lord. "

This planet is called "Dhruvaloka" and we see it as the polestar. It is said to be 3,800,000 yojanas above the sun (one yojana is equal to 8 miles). Above Dhruvaloka by 10,000,000 yojanas is Maharloka. Above Maharloka by 20,000,000 yojanas is Janaloka, a further 80,000,000 yojanas lies Tapaloka, and above by 120,000,000 yojanas is Satyaloka. The Vaikuntha planets begin 26,200,000 yojanas beyond Satyaloka.

The scripture "Vishnu Purana" describes that the outer covering of the universe begins 260,000,000 yojanas above the sun. About 70,000 yojanas below the earth begin the seven lower planetary systems of Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala, and Patala. Below these planets 30,000 yojanas is the Garbhodaka Ocean where Sesa Naga lies. This ocean is 249,800,000 yojanas deep. This gives an approximate diameter of the universe as 500,000,000 yojanas or 4,000,000,000 miles. These distances are calculated according to the distances between the planetary "planes" of existence. Actual distances between planets may be more.

The higher planetary systems are the realms of devas, demigods, and angels. Bhuvarloka is the abode of ghostly spirits, and the lower planets are populated by those of demoniac consciousness as well as the snakes known as "Nagas". Development of higher consciousness, which also includes advanced intellectuality, starts with human beings and further increases among the denizens of higher planetary systems. The earth is situated close to the middle of these planetary systems.

Descriptions of the Planetary Systems
Satyaloka

This is the abode of Lord Brahma, the progenitor of this material universe. Here there are airplanes controlled by mantra, not by any mechanical means. The residents have mind and intelligence, but no material gross bodies. They feel compassion for those suffering in the lower regions, but do not suffer fear, old age, or death. At the time of final dissolution of the material planets the residents here transform their subtle bodies into spiritual bodies and enter the eternal Vaikuntha planets. Great yogis finally reach this highest planet through the Milky Way, which is the "highway" to this most elevated planet where the duration of life is calculated as 15,480,000,000,000 years.

Tapaloka

This is the abode of the four Kumaras named Sanat, Sanaka, Sanandana, and Sanatana. In this world many great sages also reside due to their advancement through spiritual austerity. The enjoyment available to the residents is inconceivable to us as it is beyond anything of our experience. When there is annihilation of the material universe the residents here also transform their subtle bodies to spiritual and enter the spiritual sky.

Janaloka

This planet, still above the heavenly realms, is another abode of great saints and sages. This planet is populated by mystics who move to higher planets, and eventually transform their subtle bodies to spiritual, when the fire of devastation consumes the material planets. These residents can move between any planets within the material universe as mystic "spacemen" at speeds unthinkable to us.

Maharloka

When fully purified from material desire and contamination through sacrifice, penance, and charity one can reach the heavenly planets, and if advancing further can pass through the higher orbits to reach Maharloka. The greatest of sages, such as Bhrigu Muni, live in this place. It is situated beyond the "Sisumara", which is the pivotal point for the turning of the universe. Advanced yogis reach this planet and live here for 4,300,000,000 solar years. When the fire of devastation almost reaches this planet the residents transport themselves to Satyaloka where they live further before this highest of planets is destroyed. They then transform their subtle bodies to spiritual and enter the spiritual realms.

Dhruvaloka

In every material universe is one Vaikuntha planet with an ocean of milk where Lord Vishnu resides on an island called Svetadvipa. This planet is Dhruvaloka. Living here are completely pure personalities. In our universe this planet is seen as the polestar and is situated above the planets of the Seven Rishis. As it is a spiritual planet, it is eternal and therefore remains when all other planets within the material universes are destroyed. It is said that this planet is the pivot for all material stars 'and planets' orbits. All planets travel at high speeds in orbit, including the sun, which travels 16,000 miles per second in its orbit around Dhruvaloka. The planets of the seven sages are stars just below this planet that also orbit Dhruvaloka. They are always concerned with the welfare of the living entities within this material world and send emissaries to bring spiritual knowledge at various times and circumstances.

Sanaiscara (Saturn)

Saturn is considered an inauspicious planet astrologically, as he gives painful lessons to us here on earth. It is situated 1,600,000 miles above Jupiter and passes through one sign of the zodiac every 30 months.

Brihaspati (Jupiter)

Jupiter is considered a most auspicious heavenly planet and is generally considered favorable astrologically, depending on placement at the time of our births here on earth. It is a planet of devas, and situated 1,600,000 miles above Mars.

Angaraka (Mars)

Mars is considered to be a malefic planet, which creates lack of rainfall on earth and almost always is capable of creating unfavorable influences here. It is situated 1,600,000 miles above Mercury.

Buddha (Mercury)

Mercury is said to be the son of the moon and is 1,600,000 miles beyond the planet Venus. As does Venus, he sometimes moves behind the sun, sometimes in front, and sometimes along with it. Generally the influence of Mercury is said to be auspicious astrologically, except when not moving with the sun. At such times this planet causes great storms on earth.

Shukra (Venus)

Venus is considered a most auspicious and favorable planet, and is also of the heavenly planets. Venus is said to bring rainfall, another reason for it being considered auspicious to life on earth.

Chandraloka (Moon)

The Moon is one of the four most important residences of the demigods. Those who worship the demigods through sacrifice aimed at great material enjoyment are promoted to the Moon. Here the celestial, intoxicating beverage called "soma" is available. It is not possible to enter into or even see the actual heavenly dimensions of this planet with our present eyes. The Moon passes through the entire zodiac in approximately one month. He influences the growth of vegetation and therefore considered the life-giver for all living beings on earth.

Surya (Sun)

The Sun is the source of light and heat for our universe. Modern science considers many stars to also be suns, but in the vedic literature they are considered to be planets of varying material elements, but not the center, as is the Sun. Surya, the sun god, is considered an expansion of Narayana (a form of Lord Vishnu). He controls the seasons here on earth. It is situated between Bhuloka and Bhuvarloka, rotating through the time circle of the zodiac. Yogis practicing hatha or ashtanga yoga, or those performing agnihotra sacrifices, worship the sun for their benefit. The demigods residing on the sun planet have bodies made of fire, necessary for life here.

Rahu

Rahu is said to be an invisible planet, which is situated 80,000 miles below the sun. It causes solar and lunar eclipses, as Rahu, along with Ketu, are the north and south nodes of the moon respectively.

Siddhaloka, Caranaloka, & Vidyadharaloka

These planets are 80,000 miles below Rahu. The residents of these planets are born with natural mystic powers, including the ability to fly without mechanical means, even to other planets. They have all the mystic siddhis, and being materially perfect beings can control gravity, time, and space. Their arts, culture, and sciences are far superior to that knowledge possessed by we here in the earthly realm.

Yakshaloka & Rakshashaloka

Beneath these higher planetary systems, in the sky called "antariksha", are the residences of the Yakshas, ​​Rakshashas, ​​Pisachas, ghosts, and other etheral beings. This realm extends as far as the wind blows and clouds float in the sky. Above this there is no air.

Bhu-mandala (Middle Earth)

The planetary systems of middle earth (Bhumandala or Bhuloka) are abodes of both standards of living such as we enjoy on our planet, as well as some heavenly abodes where living beings may "stop" on the way to, or from, births in the heavenly planetary systems. There are seven planetary systems, which are divided by seven oceans. The names of the planetary systems are Jambu, Plaksha, Salmali, Kusha, Krauncha, Shaka, and Pushkara. Each system is twice as large as the one preceding it, and each ocean between the systems are made respectively of salt water, sugarcane juice, liquor, ghee, milk, emulsified yogurt, and sweet water.
Bhumandala is shaped like a lotus flower and the seven planetary systems are in the whorl of the lotus. The radius of Bhumandala extends as far as the sunshine, and the limits of our vision here to see the stars and moon. As the sunshine reaches earth from a distance of 93,000,000 miles, this is the radius of the plane of Bhumandala.

Lower Planetary Systems

Below the earth are seven other systems called Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala, and Patala. These lower planetary systems are the same size as the earth planet, and begin 560,000 miles below earth. Sunshine does not reach these planets and light comes from jewels on the hoods of serpents. These planets are populated by persons of great power and opulence, yet of demoniac consciousness, who have reached here through austerity aimed at material enjoyment without spiritual development. They do not become old and diseased and fear only the time factor, which ultimately must destroy their abodes. Therefore they are given the name of "bila-svarga", or subterranean heavenly planets.

The residents here enjoy a standard of material comfort more opulent than even the higher planets due to their desires for high standards of sensual enjoyment, wealth, and influence. The residents are known as Daityas, Danavas, and Nagas and are all engaged in illusory material enjoyment with no thought of spiritual liberation. There are incredible feats of architecture in their cities bedecked with valuable jewels in houses, gardens, compounds, etc. All residents drink juices and bathe in herbal elixirs which free them from any anxiety or physical disease, as well as any sign of physical aging. The visual beauty of these artificial heavens surpasses that of the higher planets and this sensual atmosphere completely captures the mind, allowing no thoughts but those directed toward sensual pleasure and happiness. Since time is not divided into days and nights due to no sunshine reaching these planets, they have no fear produced by time. Only at the time of dissolution does anxiety and fear consume them.

Narakaloka, the Hellish Planetary Systems

Beneath the planet Patalaloka, and slightly above the water of the Garbhodaka ocean, are the Naralokas, or the hellish planetary systems. These planets are of different degrees of suffering for those who must endure life there. Here on earth we can see many hellish circumstances of suffering for people, but nothing like what is experienced on these planets. They are said to be a place of rectification for those who commit the most abominable actions while living as humans on the earthly plane. Although life here seems like it goes on for an eternity, in actual fact the duration of one's "karmic sentence" here may be only seconds or moments. There are 28 different hellish planets described in the Vedic literatures.

These descriptions of the material creation, as well as the spiritual planets, may be found in several Vedic literatures to a far greater depth. I have out of necessity greatly abbreviated the information given here.

All of the planetary systems in the material world will in time be annihilated. This annihilation takes place in two ways. Partial annihilation occurs every 4,300,000,000 solar years, or at the end of each day on Satyaloka. This extends from the hellish planets through all lower planetary systems up to the heavenly planets. The highest planets are not annihilated at this time. The entire cosmic manifestation is wound up in the universal form of God every 8,600,000,000 x 30 x 12 x 100 solar years. The spiritual world, which is never annihilated, simply absorbs the material creation. It is described that before the destruction there is no rain for hundreds of years. Everything dries up and dies due to continuous sunshine. The sun becomes 12 times as powerful as was previously. Then there are horrendous rains that absorb everything into water.

The mortal bodies of living entities, including all vegetation, merge into the earth. The earth merges into its subtle sensation of fragrance. Fragrance merges into water, and water merges into its quality of taste. That taste merges into fire, which merges into form. Form merges into touch and touch into ether. Ether finally merges into the sensation of sound. The senses all merge into their origins, the presiding devas and demigods, then they merge into the controlling mind, which merges into ego in the mode of goodness. Sound becomes one with ego in the mode of ignorance, and ego (the first of all the physical elements), merges into the total nature. The total material nature dissolves into the modes (goodness, passion, and ignorance). These modes then merge into the unmanifest form of nature, and that unmanifest form merges into time. Time merges into the Supreme Godhead, present as Maha-Vishnu, the original creator of the cosmic manifestation. The origin of all life merges into God, the unborn Supreme Soul who remains one without a second, and from whom all creation and annihilation takes place. This annihilation of the material world is the exact reverse of the process of creation. Everything ultimately rests within the Supreme Absolute.

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Source by Howard Beckman

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There are a wide range of suppliers online offering promotional conference bags in a variety of colors and sizes. Most of these are made from nylon and polyester in several different fabric weights. If you're wondering what terms like "600D polyester" and "70D nylon" mean, here's a quick explanation of these terms and how knowing what they mean can help you decide what advertising conference bags will best suit your needs.

Each bag is made from either nylon or polyester – typically 600D polyester or 70D nylon. In both cases, the "D" stands for the word "denier", which is a measure of the fineness of the material. Specifically, the word refers to the weight (in grams) of 9,000 meters of the fiber from which the material is made. In simpler terms, it means that a higher denier fabric is stronger and more durable than the same type of fabric with a lower denier rating.

However, when comparing two different types of fabrics, such as polyester and nylon, it is important to note that because each fabric has different weights, 600D polyester fabric is not equal to 600D nylon fabric in terms of strength. In general, nylon is a stronger fabric type than polyester, and 420D nylon fabric, for example, is actually stronger than 600D polyester and as such these types of promotional conference bags are more durable and will carry your logo and marketing message much further.

Other fabric options include twill and PVC. Twill is an attractive patterned weave that is particularly durable, as it is often made from two or more different types of fibers. PVC is a plastic polymer with a glossy look that looks great in primary colors, and as an added bonus it's a bit more water resistant than other synthetic fabrics.

What does all of this mean when it comes to choosing the right conference bag for your particular needs? Simply that if your budget allows, you're much better off with a higher denier fabric than a lower one, because a bag made from high denier fabric will be stronger, more durable, more water resistant, and will last much longer. You will, of course, have other considerations such as color range, style and price, but it is always important to consider the type of fabric your bag is made from, particularly if you would like a bag that will stand up to months of use after the conference.

No matter which fabric type you prefer, the range available from leading online suppliers is sure to meet your demands both in terms of quality and price point. There is a very wide variety of conference bag options available, from high gloss PVC to tough, durable 600D polyester. In addition there are promotional conference bags to suit all budgets, as well as plenty of choice in terms of color and style, so you can choose a bag that will complement your conference, trade show or other business related event perfectly.

If you require additional information on conference bags or business promotional items, promotional gifts and promotional products then check out the leading expert suppliers online where you can make massive savings.

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Source by Tina Rinaudo

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An HIC steel plate is a carbon steel plate which is tested specifically to assess the susceptibility of the material to hydrogen induced cracking, a problem which is commonly found in the oil, gas and chemical industries in what are known as wet h2s and sour service environments .

The build up of hydrogen sulfide in pressure vessel tanks found in these industries is a major concern as it leads to a condition known as hydrogen induced cracking or HIC, where the inner wall of the pressure vessel suffers from the effects of hydrogen corrosion. As pressure vessels and steel boilers operate at a different internal pressure / temperature to the ambient pressure / temperature, such cracking can cause a reduction in load bearing capacity which could cause a potentially catastrophic failure. It is therefore vitally important that procurers in the oil and gas industry have confidence in the longevity of the steel supplied for this purpose.

HIC corrosion in a steel pressure vessel should be considered a risk at hydrogen sulphide levels in excess of 3.5mbar. Where this scenario exists, the steel should therefore be tested for its resistance to the onset of hydrogen induced cracking – the performance of the steel is directly related to the quality of the material and for this reason, greater emphasis is being placed on the quality of the steel at the processing stage. Controlling the amount of hydrogen that is picked up in the processing cycle of the material will increase the longevity of the plate in situ. Ultimately, engineers in the oil and gas industry need to have a realistic view of how long the material will last.

HIC resistant steel can undergo a variety of tests which are normally specified by the customer. Commonly, an unstressed sample is exposed to a solution at ambient temperature and pressure. After a predefined period the sample is withdrawn and assessed. Such a test can provide a clear indication of the materials suitability for purpose. Tests can be carried out at the mill itself or by an independent testing house. Certification is issued with the plate to confirm the result of any test, offering full traceability.

Another variant of the HIC problem is SOHIC or stress orientated hydrogen induced cracking. This is where exposure to hydrogen sulphide can effect the stress load around the heat affected zone of welds since this is the weak point in the tank. Whether HIC or SOHIC, the need for steel to be tested for resistance to hydrogen induced cracking is critical.

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Source by John Winterton

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Many writers of the early days defined economics as "a science of wealth". Adam Smith commonly know as the father of modern economics, defined economics as "An enquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of nations."

These definitions were defective because they gave much importance to wealth. As wealth is not everything, it only leads to achieve welfare of human. Therefore it is man an which is the aim all of the economic activities.

Professor Dr. Alfred Marshall was the first economist who gave a logical definition of economics. He defined economics as: "A study of mankind in ordinary business of life, it examine that part of individual and social actions which is closely related with attainment and use of material requisites"

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEFINITION:

This definition gave a new direction to the study of economics. Following are the important characteristics of definition.

1. A Social Science

This Definition makes economics a social science. It is a subject that is concerned with the people living in society. According to Marshall, as the behavior of human beings is not same all the time therefore principles of economics can not be formulated like the laws of sciences. Further laws of economics are not as exact as the laws of natural sciences. For this reason it is a social science.

2. Study Of Man

Economics is related to man; therefore it is living subject. It discusses economic problems and behavior of man. According to Marshall it studies the behavior of man In ordinary business of life.

3. Wealth As A Means Of Material Well Being

According to Marshall, wealth is not the ultimate objective of human activities and therefore we do not study wealth, for the sake of wealth. Therefore according to this definition we study wealth as a source of attainment of material welfare.

4. Economics And Welfare

This definition makes economics a welfare oriented subject. We are concerned only with those economic activities which do not promote material welfare of human beings are out of the scope of economics.

5. Materiality

Marshal stresses upon the concept of "material requisite of well being". Therefore according to this definition all economic activities resolve around the acquisition and use of material goods like food, clothing etc. because they increase welfare of human beings. On the other hand non-material requisites of human life like education, recreation are ignored.

6. Normative Outlook

According to this definition economics should take care of good and bad aspects of economic activities and therefore involve itself in "what should be and what should not be". This is called normative aspect of economics.

CRITICISM

"Robbins and other many economists severely criticized this definition on following grounds."

1. Limited To Material Welfare

This definition limits the subject of economics to material welfare of people. But the subject of economics is not limited to the study of material welfare of human beings. In reality both material and non material aspects of wellbeing are studies in economics.

2. Vague Concept of Welfare

The concept of welfare used in this definition is also not clear. The welfare of human beings is not limited to the attainment of material requisites. There are many other factors which affect the human welfare. Further the word "welfare" has different meaning for different persons and different societies. Therefore we can not define economics using an unclear concept of welfare.

3. Limited Scope

This definition has made the scope of economics limited. Only those activities are studied in economics which are aimed at the attainment of material requisites of well being. Further it ignores the economic activities of a person not living in society. Attainment of non material requisites of human well being fall out of the scope of economics. This division of material and non material aspects of human welfare is not correct.

4. Economics And Welfare

According to Robbins the study of economic activities on the basis of welfare is not good. It is not the duty of an economist to pass verdict that what is conducive to welfare and what is not. Thus according to Robbins "Whatever Economics is concerned with, it is not concerned with causes of material welfare as such.

5. Moral Judgment

In this definition Marshall makes economics a subject which considers the right and wrong aspect of economic activities. According to Robbins economics in neutral as regards ends and it is not the function of an economist to pass moral judgments and say what is good and what is bad.

6. Unrealistic

This definition appears to be unrealistic as we analyze it critically. The unclear concept of welfare, the division of ends into material and non material, the stress on good and bad, the concept of man living in society etc. all these concepts put unnecessary restrictions and make the scope of economics limited. These ideas make the definition unrealistic.

CONCLUSION

Although this definition gave a new direction to the subject of economics but it had many weaknesses. Some of the faults of definition are discussed above. For these reasons this definition was replaced by other new definitions of economics.

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Source by Muhammad Waqas Nayyar